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	<title>何文超个人博客 &#187; 管理</title>
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		<title>“网上最佳管理者”课程的网络学习环境的可用性评价</title>
		<link>http://www.hewenchao.com/2010/usability-evaluation-of-e-learning-environment-of-best-managers-on-the-net/?utm_source=rss&#038;utm_medium=rss&#038;utm_campaign=usability-evaluation-of-e-learning-environment-of-best-managers-on-the-net</link>
		<comments>http://www.hewenchao.com/2010/usability-evaluation-of-e-learning-environment-of-best-managers-on-the-net/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Sat, 16 Jan 2010 14:00:00 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>何文超</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[教育技术]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[经济与管理]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[e-learning]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[UOW]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[卧龙岗大学]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[学习环境]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[管理]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[网络课程]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[评估]]></category>

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		<description><![CDATA[这是我在上"Evaluation of Technology-Based Learning"这门课的时候所写的一篇关于Best Managers on the Net这个网络课程的可用性评价的小文章，完稿于2009年3月23日。 <span style="color:#777"> . . . &#8594; Read More: <a href="http://www.hewenchao.com/2010/usability-evaluation-of-e-learning-environment-of-best-managers-on-the-net/">“网上最佳管理者”课程的网络学习环境的可用性评价</a></span>]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[Pageviews:1529<br/><p style="text-align: center"><strong><span style="font-family: Times New Roman"><span style="font-size: x-large">Usability Evaluation of E-Learning Environment </span></span></strong></p>
<div align="center"><strong><span style="font-family: Times New Roman"><span style="font-size: x-large">of <i>Best Managers on the Net <sup>&reg;</sup></i></span></span></strong></div>
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<div style="text-align: center; line-height: 17pt" align="center"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman"><span style="font-size: medium">Wenchao He</span></span></div>
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<div style="text-align: center; line-height: 17pt" align="center"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman"><span style="font-size: medium">Faculty of Education, University of Wollongong, Australia</span></span></div>
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<div style="line-height: 17pt"><span style="font-size: large"><strong><span style="font-family: Times New Roman">1&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Introduction</span></strong></span></div>
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<div style="line-height: 17pt"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman"><span style="font-size: medium"><i>Best Managers on the Net</i> <sup>&reg;</sup> (<i>Best Managers</i> for short below) is a self-paced online course for potential or existing small business mangers and owners who want to build or improve their business on the Internet, which is offered by Technology Business Services, Inc. and taught by Prof. Richard Dowell. The <span class='wp_keywordlink_affiliate'><a href="http://www.richardhe.com/tag/e-learning/" title="查看 e-learning 中的全部文章" target="_blank">e-learning</a></span> environment of the course is built at bestmanagers.net where all the learning materials and support are provided. In addition, e-mail consultation and video-conferencing session are also available to subscribers. The author subscribed to this course for a 30-day risk-free trial so that he was able to have full access to the e-learning environment. And then he conducted a usability evaluation using two instruments&mdash;Cognitive Walkthrough and Heuristic Evaluation. The procedures and results of the evaluation are documented in this paper, followed by the author&rsquo;s reflection on the evaluation experience and the discussion on the two instruments.</span></span></div>
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<div style="line-height: 17pt"><strong><span style="font-size: large"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman">2&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Selection of Evaluation Instruments</span></span></strong></div>
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<div style="line-height: 17pt"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman"><span style="font-size: medium">The human resource for the usability evaluation that the author had was just himself, and there was additional users available (e.g., there were no multiple testers available). This limitation narrowed the scope of instruments that the author could choose from. On the other hand, the author&rsquo;s account in the e-learning environment was at an end-user level, which means that he did not have administrator privilege to change anything on the website (e.g., to release a questionnaire), or to access to other users&rsquo; information (e.g., activity logs, contact details, etc.). Based on such preconditions and according to the requirements of various usability evaluation instruments (Nielsen 1993; Nielsen and Mack 1994), the author finally selected Cognitive Walkthrough and Heuristic Evaluation as the two main instruments used for the usability evaluation. This is because these two instruments do not require multiple actual users, testers or website developers and administrators to participate. By using these instruments, the evaluator does not need to have administrator privilege over the website.</span></span></div>
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<div style="line-height: 17pt"><span style="font-size: large"><strong><span style="font-family: Times New Roman">3&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Cognitive Walkthrough</span></strong></span></div>
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<div style="line-height: 17pt"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman"><span style="font-size: medium">Cognitive walkthrough involves one or a group of evaluators inspecting a user interface by going through a set of tasks and evaluate its understandability and ease of learning. The user interface is often presented in the form of a paper mock-up or a working prototype, but it can also be a fully developed interface. The input to the walkthrough also includes the user profile and the task cases. The evaluators may include human factors engineers, software developers, or people from marketing, documentation, etc. As the walkthrough proceeds, the evaluator asks four questions: (1) Will the users try to achieve the right effect? (2) Will the user notice that the correct action is available? (3) Will the user associate the correct action with the effect to be achieved? (4) If the correct action is performed, will the user see that progress is being made toward solution of the task? (Nielsen and Mack 1994). </span></span></div>
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<div style="line-height: 17pt"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman"><span style="font-size: medium">The users of the online course were defined as educated adult learners from business fields, some of who may only have basic computer skills while others may have intermediate e-business skills (e.g., building and operating an online store).</span></span></div>
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<div style="line-height: 17pt"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman"><span style="font-size: medium">Five typical tasks that most users would do during participating in the online course were identified as: (1) log on student account, (2) get access to the course material, (3) join the online conference, (4) participate in group discussion and (5) communicate with the instructor. The rest of this section documents the correct action sequence for each task and their evaluation result.</span></span></div>
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<div style="line-height: 17pt"><strong><span style="font-family: Times New Roman"><span style="font-size: medium"><i>3.1&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Log on Student Account</i></span></span></strong></div>
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<div style="line-height: 17pt"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman"><span style="font-size: medium">To log on student account, a user needs to (1) locate the log on portal and (2) enter the username and password. As for <i>Best Managers</i>, the &ldquo;Login Form&rdquo; is located on the left side below the main menu, which is apparent to users. Those who have previous login experience in other online service will easily identify that this is the first step before they can access to the membership area. Once they enter the correct login detail, they are NOT directed to a different page. Rather, they are still on the same page but the &ldquo;Login Form&rdquo; is changed to &ldquo;User Menu&rdquo;. As a result, the user may not realize whether they have successfully logged in or not.</span></span></div>
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<div style="line-height: 17pt; text-indent: -21pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt 21pt"><strong><span style="font-family: Times New Roman"><span style="font-size: medium"><i>3.2<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman'">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>Get access to the course material</i></span></span></strong></div>
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<div style="line-height: 17pt"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman"><span style="font-size: medium">To get access to the course material, a user needs to (1) locate the link to the course material, (2) click the link, (3) identify the sequencing of material, (4) open the presentations orderly, and (5) play the instructor&rsquo;s voice recording at each slide. After logging in <i>Best Managers</i>, users may not immediately realize the location of course material because, instead of displaying a &ldquo;course material&rdquo; link or section for navigation, the system directly provides users with the unit names of course. &ldquo;Internet Success&rdquo; and &ldquo;Business Success Tips&rdquo; are actually two links to the course material (see Figure 1). Users may not know about this until they try to click the links. In terms of the sequencing of material, basically it is easy to understand. The system suggests users use Firefox browser because the presentation and the voice recording can only display properly in Firefox, which is helpful for the users. However, traditional IE users may not know what to response to this warning because the system does not provide a link to download Firefox.</span></span></div>
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<div style="text-align: center"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman"><span style="font-size: medium"><img style="cursor: pointer" border="0" alt="Figure 1: User Menu" width="106" height="183" onclick="window.open('/dedecms/uploads/allimg/100117/1_100117203516_1.JPG')" src="http://www.hewenchao.com/dedecms/uploads/allimg/100117/1_100117203516_1.JPG" /><br />
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<div style="text-align: center; line-height: 17pt"><strong><span style="font-family: Times New Roman"><span style="font-size: medium">Figure 1: User Menu</span></span></strong></div>
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<div style="line-height: 17pt; text-indent: -21pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt 21pt"><strong><span style="font-family: Times New Roman"><span style="font-size: medium"><i>3.3<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman'">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>Join the online conference</i></span></span></strong></div>
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<div style="line-height: 17pt"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman"><span style="font-size: medium">To join the online conference, a user needs to (1) locate the link to the third part online conferencing solution website, (2) click the link, and (3) wait for the conference organizer to approve the access. The link &ldquo;Join Class Meeting Online&rdquo; is apparent, but it is associated with the same icon as for course material, which is like a document (see Figure 2). This is not easy for users to quickly identify that the link is for the synchronous conference.</span></span></div>
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<div style="text-align: center"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman"><span style="font-size: medium"><img style="cursor: pointer" border="0" alt="Figure 2: Links in Course Material" width="431" height="425" onclick="window.open('/dedecms/uploads/allimg/100117/1_100117203618_1.JPG')" src="http://www.hewenchao.com/dedecms/uploads/allimg/100117/1_100117203618_1.JPG" /><br />
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<div style="text-align: center; line-height: 17pt"><strong><span style="font-family: Times New Roman"><span style="font-size: medium">Figure 2: Links in Course Material</span></span></strong></div>
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<div style="line-height: 17pt; text-indent: -21pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt 21pt"><strong><span style="font-family: Times New Roman"><span style="font-size: medium"><i>3.4<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman'">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>Participate in group discussion</i></span></span></strong></div>
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<div style="line-height: 17pt"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman"><span style="font-size: medium">To participate in group discussion, a user needs to (1) locate the link to group discussion, (2) apply for joining the Google Group (if there is no Gmail account, sign up a Gmail account first), (3) wait for instructor&rsquo;s approval, and (4) log in the Google Group. Instead of display the group discussion link in the user menu, the system puts the link at the bottom of the page of course contents. Users may not realize that there is this service until they scroll down to the bottom. Those who have no previous experience of using Google Group or even have no Gmail account may feel confused or frustrated because there is no step-by-step instruction for signing up this service provided.</span></span></div>
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<div style="line-height: 17pt; text-indent: -21pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt 21pt"><strong><span style="font-family: Times New Roman"><span style="font-size: medium"><i>3.5<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman'">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>Communicate with the instructor</i></span></span></strong></div>
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<div style="line-height: 17pt"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman"><span style="font-size: medium">To communicate with the instructor, a user needs to (1) identify the available communication methods, and (2) communicate with the instructor using those methods. Best Managers provides users with two main methods for the communication&mdash;e-mail and telephone. The contact detail is located in the middle of the course material contents page and the last slide of each session. It is easy for users to find this information and use these two simple communication tools. However, once a user communicates with the instructor using e-mail or telephone, s/he may be requested to provide further details for verification, because these two methods do not utilize the information of login status. The users may introduce themselves every time they contact the instructor. However, this is not advised on the system. First-time users may not know they have to include their personal information (e.g., username) in their first e-mail to the instructor.</span></span></div>
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<div style="line-height: 17pt"><span style="font-size: large"><strong><span style="font-family: Times New Roman">4&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Heuristic Evaluation</span></strong></span></div>
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<div style="line-height: 17pt"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman"><span style="font-size: medium">Heuristic Evaluation is a technique for identifying usability issues. It is cheaper to conduct than formal usability testing and can be completed in a very short period at any stage of the design. A heuristic is a guideline or general principle or rule of thumb that can guide a design decision or be used to critique a decision that has already been made. Heuristic evaluation, developed by Jakob Nielsen and Rolf Molich, is a method for structuring the critique of a system using a set of relatively simple and general heuristics (Nielsen and Mack 1994; Gaffney 2000). For the evaluation of <i>Best Managers</i>, the author adopted and revised the heuristic evaluation instrument developed by Reeves and Hedberg (Reeves and Hedberg 2008). </span></span></div>
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<div style="line-height: 17pt"><strong><span style="font-family: Times New Roman"><span style="font-size: medium"><i>4.1&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Visibility of system status</i></span></span></strong></div>
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<div style="line-height: 17pt"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman"><span style="font-size: medium">Guideline: The e-learning program keeps the learner informed about what is happening, through appropriate feedback within reasonable time.</span></span></div>
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<div style="line-height: 17pt"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman"><span style="font-size: medium">Comments: <i>Best Managers</i> basically does not inform users about any update through the website. Instead, the instructor sent e-mails to the users to inform them the updates. Usually in the e-mail, the instructor asked the users to click some links to get access to the content that the instructor would like them to get access to. However, the users may not know how to get there from the website step-by-step without knowing the exact URL.</span></span></div>
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<div style="line-height: 17pt"><strong><span style="font-family: Times New Roman"><span style="font-size: medium"><i>4.2&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; User control and freedom</i></span></span></strong></div>
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<div style="line-height: 17pt"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman"><span style="font-size: medium">Guideline: The e-learning program allows the learner to recover from input mistakes and provides a clearly marked &ldquo;emergency exit&rdquo; to leave an unwanted state without having to go through an extended dialogue.</span></span></div>
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<div style="line-height: 17pt"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman"><span style="font-size: medium">Comments: Basically, <i>Best Managers</i> does not require users to input any information. It allows users to move around in the website, such as going back and review previous sections of the course materials. Users can leave the website or a session whenever desired. There is not any restriction or an extended dialogue. However, as the system does not remember a user&rsquo;s learning progress (e.g., which session has been learned), it is not easy to return to the closest logical point in the course.</span></span></div>
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<div style="line-height: 17pt"><strong><span style="font-family: Times New Roman"><span style="font-size: medium"><i>4.3&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Recognition rather than recall</i></span></span></strong></div>
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<div style="line-height: 17pt"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman"><span style="font-size: medium">Guideline: The e-learning program makes objects, actions, and options visible so that the user does not have to remember information from one part of the program to another. Instructions for use of the program are visible or easily retrievable.</span></span></div>
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<div style="line-height: 17pt"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman"><span style="font-size: medium">Comments: For each session, users of <i>Best Managers</i> can easily recognise how to go through the materials from the beginning to the end as expected. However, the system does not provide hints or directions when the user requests assistance. Although contextual assistance is not available, a section called &ldquo;Ask Sarah&rdquo; can answer users&rsquo; questions and it will send any unanswered questions to the instructor. This is supported by <i>Virtual Smart Agent.</i> However, the robot could not answer many questions properly as the author tried to ask her some question about the course materials. </span></span></div>
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<div style="line-height: 17pt"><strong><span style="font-family: Times New Roman"><span style="font-size: medium"><i>4.4&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp; Interactivity</i></span></span></strong></div>
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<div style="line-height: 17pt"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman"><span style="font-size: medium">Guideline: The e-learning program provides content-related interactions and tasks that support meaningful learning.</span></span></div>
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<div style="line-height: 17pt"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman"><span style="font-size: medium">Comments: <i>Best Managers</i> does not have many interactions that support meaningful learning. The main learning activity is to watch the instructor&rsquo;s PowerPoint presentation associating with his voice recording. Users and the instructor do not interact except for e-mails and online conference. It appears that there is no human-machine interaction through out the course.</span></span></div>
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<div style="line-height: 17pt; text-indent: -21pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt 21pt"><strong><span style="font-family: Times New Roman"><span style="font-size: medium"><i>4.5<span style="font: 7pt 'Times New Roman'">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span>Message Design</i></span></span></strong></div>
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<div style="line-height: 17pt"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman"><span style="font-size: medium">Guideline: The e-learning program presents information in accord with sound principles of information-processing theory.</span></span></div>
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<div style="line-height: 17pt"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman"><span style="font-size: medium">Comments: According to Cognitive Load Theory (Sweller 1988; Sweller 1989), learning will become effective if different sources of information are related but not exactly the same. The presentations of <i>Best Managers </i>are in accord with this theory. The instructor&rsquo;s speech elaborates what a user is watching, no matter the user is watching a slide or the screen recording of operating on a software or website interface. Such combination of information can facilitate learning effectively.</span></span></div>
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<div style="line-height: 17pt"><strong><span style="font-family: Times New Roman"><span style="font-size: medium"><i>4.6&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Learning Management</i></span></span></strong></div>
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<div style="line-height: 17pt"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman"><span style="font-size: medium">Guideline: The e-learning program enables learners to monitor their progress through the material.</span></span></div>
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<div style="line-height: 17pt"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman"><span style="font-size: medium">Comments: <i>Best Managers</i> does not enable users to monitor their progress through the material. Users may not possess an adequate understanding of what they have completed and what remains to be done within any specific session. Assessment is also not available.</span></span></div>
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<div style="line-height: 17pt"><strong><span style="font-family: Times New Roman"><span style="font-size: medium"><i>4.7&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Feedback</i></span></span></strong></div>
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<div style="line-height: 17pt"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman"><span style="font-size: medium">Guideline: The e-learning program provides feedback that is contextual and relevant to the problem or task in which the learner is engaged.</span></span></div>
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<div style="line-height: 17pt"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman"><span style="font-size: medium">Comments: In<i> Best Managers</i>, feedback is provided when users ask the instructor questions via e-mail, within Google Group or in online conference. As users&rsquo; learning progress is not monitored nor recorded, feedback may not be given at a specific time tailored to the content being studied, problem being solved or task being completed by the users.</span></span></div>
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<div style="line-height: 17pt"><span style="font-size: large"><strong><span style="font-family: Times New Roman">5&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Reflection and Discussion</span></strong></span></div>
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<div style="line-height: 17pt"><strong><span style="font-family: Times New Roman"><span style="font-size: medium"><i>5.1&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Cognitive Walkthrough</i></span></span></strong></div>
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<div style="line-height: 17pt"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman"><span style="font-size: medium">Cognitive Walkthrough can be implemented by one usability expert. It is independent from end users and helps designers to take on a potential user&rsquo;s perspective. By using this instrument, the author could effectively identify the problems of the e-learning environment that are directly related to the typical tasks that the end users will perform. Such problems may be fixed at an early stage and prevent end users from meeting critical system errors. The instrument also helps define users&rsquo; goals and assumptions when the author applied it (i.e., to identify the typical tasks). This method uses fewer resources (time, personnel and equipment) than actual user performance testing. However, Cognitive Walkthrough is more dependent upon evaluators&rsquo; biases and subjective comments. When the author applied this instrument, sometimes he was not completely sure whether his subjective comments were correct or not. The author would wonder if the errors and problems found using the Cognitive Walkthrough may be less severe than those found in user testing. Previous experiences of similar situation will always influence the evaluator&rsquo;s decision, but the influence will not always lead to a correct conclusion. Or if the evaluator&rsquo;s memory is incorrect or incomplete, potential errors may not be found or in some cases new errors may be introduced. Furthermore, untrained evaluators have been found to produce poorer results (Polson, Lewis et al. 1992; Lewis and Wharton 1997; Barnum 2002).</span></span></div>
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<div style="line-height: 17pt"><strong><span style="font-family: Times New Roman"><span style="font-size: medium"><i>5.2&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Heuristic Evaluation</i></span></span></strong></div>
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<div style="line-height: 17pt"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman"><span style="font-size: medium">Heuristic Evaluation can identify problems very early in the development of the documentation. The heuristic statements or guidelines are based on experts&rsquo; experience. By using a heuristic evaluation to identify problem areas in the documentation, it can provide a focus for a later user performance evaluation. Heuristic evaluations can produce high quality results in a limited time because this method does not involve detailed scripting or time-consuming participant recruiting. Instead, the author could quickly comment on <i>Best Managers</i> from various aspects which was found important and critical by previous usability evaluation experts. However, Desurvire (1994) points out that experts using heuristic evaluation found 80% of the minor annoyances that users might experience, but only 29% of the problems that were likely to cause task failure (the most severe problems). Expert evaluation of the documentation produces results that are not actual &quot;primary&quot; user data. Real users often have problems we do not expect and do not have problems where experts might expect them; therefore, it does not necessarily indicate which problems users will encounter most frequently (Desurvire 1994; Sears 1997). Furthermore, as the author used the instrument, he found it difficult to determine which heuristic statements are really suitable for the case, and the author was also worried about some heuristic statements might be missing but essential for <i>Best Manager</i>.</span></span></div>
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<div style="line-height: 17pt"><strong><span style="font-size: large"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman">6&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Conclusion</span></span></strong></div>
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<div style="line-height: 17pt"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman"><span style="font-size: medium">By using the two instruments, the author found that <i>Best Manager </i>had a number of problems. However, both of the instruments involved much subjective decision. The result may be different from end user testing. This is the common drawback of the two evaluation methods. As a result, further actual testing is needed for more accurate evaluation results.</span></span></div>
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<div style="line-height: 17pt"><strong><span style="font-size: large"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman">7&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; References</span></span></strong></div>
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<div style="line-height: 17pt; text-indent: -36pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt 36pt"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman"><span style="font-size: medium">Barnum, C. M. (2002). <u>Usability testing and research</u>. New York, Longman Publishing Group.</span></span></div>
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<div style="line-height: 17pt; text-indent: -36pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt 36pt"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman"><span style="font-size: medium">Desurvire, H. W. (1994). Faster cheaper! Are usability inspection methods as effective as empirical testing? <u>Usability inspection methods</u>. J. Nielsen and R. L. Mack. New York, John Wiley &amp; Sons: 185.</span></span></div>
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<div style="line-height: 17pt; text-indent: -36pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt 36pt"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman"><span style="font-size: medium">Gaffney, G. (2000). &quot;What is Usability Review?&quot;&nbsp;&nbsp; Retrieved March 20, 2009, from </span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt"><a href="http://www.infodesign.com.au/usabilityresources/evaluation/conductingusabilityreviews.asp"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman"><span style="font-size: medium">http://www.infodesign.com.au/usabilityresources/evaluation/conductingusabilityreviews.asp</span></span></a></span></div>
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<div style="line-height: 17pt; text-indent: -36pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt 36pt"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman"><span style="font-size: medium">Lewis, C. and C. Wharton (1997). Cognitive Walkthroughs. <u>Handbook of Human-Computer Interaction</u>. M. Helander. Amsterdam, Elsevier: 717-732.</span></span></div>
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<div style="line-height: 17pt; text-indent: -36pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt 36pt"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman"><span style="font-size: medium">Nielsen, J., Ed. (1993). <u>Usability Engineering</u>. London, Academic Press.</span></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 17pt; text-indent: -36pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt 36pt">&nbsp;</div>
<div style="line-height: 17pt; text-indent: -36pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt 36pt"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman"><span style="font-size: medium">Nielsen, J. and R. Mack, Eds. (1994). <u>Usability Inspection Methods</u>. New York, John Wiley and Sons, Inc.</span></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 17pt; text-indent: -36pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt 36pt">&nbsp;</div>
<div style="line-height: 17pt; text-indent: -36pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt 36pt"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman"><span style="font-size: medium">Polson, P. G., C. Lewis, et al. (1992). &quot;Cognitive walkthroughs: a method for theory-based evaluation of user interfaces.&quot; <u>International Journal of Man-Machine Studies</u> 36: 741-773.</span></span></div>
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<div style="line-height: 17pt; text-indent: -36pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt 36pt"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman"><span style="font-size: medium">Reeves, T. C. and J. G. Hedberg (2008). <u>Evaluating e-Learning: a user-friendly guide (in press)</u>.</span></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 17pt; text-indent: -36pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt 36pt">&nbsp;</div>
<div style="line-height: 17pt; text-indent: -36pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt 36pt"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman"><span style="font-size: medium">Sears, A. L. (1997). &quot;Heuristic walkthroughs: Finding problems without the noise.&quot; <u>International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction</u> 9(3): 213-234.</span></span></div>
<div style="line-height: 17pt; text-indent: -36pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt 36pt">&nbsp;</div>
<div style="line-height: 17pt; text-indent: -36pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt 36pt"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman"><span style="font-size: medium">Sweller, J. (1988). &quot;Cognitive load during problem solving: Effects on learning.&quot; <u>Cognitive Science</u> 12: 257-285.</span></span></div>
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<div style="line-height: 17pt; text-indent: -36pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt 36pt"><span style="font-family: Times New Roman"><span style="font-size: medium">Sweller, J. (1989). &quot;Cognitive technology: Some procedures for facilitating learning and problem solving in mathematics and science.&quot; <u>Journal of Educational Psychology</u> 81: 457-466.</span></span></div>
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		<title>课程开发与管理中的“钟摆现象”是教育事业良性发展的必要条件与表现形式</title>
		<link>http://www.hewenchao.com/2006/zhongbai-xianxiang-jiaoyu-shiye/?utm_source=rss&#038;utm_medium=rss&#038;utm_campaign=zhongbai-xianxiang-jiaoyu-shiye</link>
		<comments>http://www.hewenchao.com/2006/zhongbai-xianxiang-jiaoyu-shiye/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Tue, 26 Sep 2006 14:00:00 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>何文超</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[教育经营]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[发展]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[必要条件]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[教育事业]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[管理]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[良性]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[表现形式]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[课程开发]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[钟摆现象]]></category>

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		<description><![CDATA[这是给我们讲授“课程开发与管理”这门专业课的史丽晶老师给我们布置的一篇平时作业，题目是就课程开发与管理中的“钟摆现象”作出评论，欢迎讨论交换意见。  <span style="color:#777"> . . . &#8594; Read More: <a href="http://www.hewenchao.com/2006/zhongbai-xianxiang-jiaoyu-shiye/">课程开发与管理中的“钟摆现象”是教育事业良性发展的必要条件与表现形式</a></span>]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[Pageviews:4410<br/><p style="text-align: center; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt" class="MsoNormal" align="center"><span style="font-size: x-large"><strong><span class='wp_keywordlink_affiliate'><a href="http://www.hewenchao.com/tag/%e8%af%be%e7%a8%8b%e5%bc%80%e5%8f%91/" title="查看 课程开发 中的全部文章" target="_blank">课程开发</a></span>与<span class='wp_keywordlink_affiliate'><a href="http://www.hewenchao.com/tag/%e7%ae%a1%e7%90%86/" title="查看 管理 中的全部文章" target="_blank">管理</a></span>中的&ldquo;<span class='wp_keywordlink_affiliate'><a href="http://www.hewenchao.com/tag/%e9%92%9f%e6%91%86%e7%8e%b0%e8%b1%a1/" title="查看 钟摆现象 中的全部文章" target="_blank">钟摆现象</a></span>&rdquo;是</strong></span></p>
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</span><strong><span class='wp_keywordlink_affiliate'><a href="http://www.hewenchao.com/tag/%e6%95%99%e8%82%b2%e4%ba%8b%e4%b8%9a/" title="查看 教育事业 中的全部文章" target="_blank">教育事业</a></span><span class='wp_keywordlink_affiliate'><a href="http://www.hewenchao.com/tag/%e8%89%af%e6%80%a7/" title="查看 良性 中的全部文章" target="_blank">良性</a></span><span class='wp_keywordlink_affiliate'><a href="http://www.hewenchao.com/tag/%e5%8f%91%e5%b1%95/" title="查看 发展 中的全部文章" target="_blank">发展</a></span>的<span class='wp_keywordlink_affiliate'><a href="http://www.hewenchao.com/tag/%e5%bf%85%e8%a6%81%e6%9d%a1%e4%bb%b6/" title="查看 必要条件 中的全部文章" target="_blank">必要条件</a></span>与<span class='wp_keywordlink_affiliate'><a href="http://www.hewenchao.com/tag/%e8%a1%a8%e7%8e%b0%e5%bd%a2%e5%bc%8f/" title="查看 表现形式 中的全部文章" target="_blank">表现形式</a></span></strong></span><span style="font-size: 22pt"><font face="黑体"><strong><span lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></strong></font></span></p>
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<p style="text-align: center; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt" class="MsoNormal" align="center"><b><span style="font-family: 宋体; font-size: 12pt">北京师范大学珠海分校教育学院教育经营系</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt" lang="EN-US"><span><font face="Times New Roman">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </font></span></span></b><b><span style="font-family: 宋体; font-size: 12pt">何文超</span></b><span lang="EN-US"><o:p><font size="3" face="Times New Roman">&nbsp;</font></o:p></span></p>
<p style="text-align: left; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt" class="MsoNormal" align="left"><span lang="EN-US"><span><font size="3" face="Times New Roman">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </font></span></span></p>
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<p style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt" class="MsoNormal"><b><span style="font-family: 宋体; font-size: 12pt">一、课程开发中的&ldquo;钟摆现象&rdquo;</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt" lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
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<p style="text-indent: 24pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt" class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: 宋体; font-size: 12pt">课程开发中的&ldquo;钟摆现象&rdquo;是指各国家和地区的教育史上，出于不同的考虑和目的，在不同时期采取不同的教育理论作为指导，实施不同的教育政策。</span></p>
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<p style="text-indent: 24pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt" class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: 宋体; font-size: 12pt">之所以出现这种现象，是因为&ldquo;课程开发是一项复杂的系统工程，受到众多矛盾要素的相互作用与制约。课程开发各个层次的研究者总是努力在这众多的矛盾要素中不断地寻找新的突破口和平衡点，由此而形成了历史上各种不同的课程价值观念、课程类型划分、课程结构组织和课程开发模式，它们的不同组合构成了色彩纷呈的课程理论流派和课程实践模式，为课程开发的进步发展提供着源源不断的动力。&rdquo;</span><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt" lang="EN-US"><span><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12pt" lang="EN-US">[1]</span></span></span></span></span></p>
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<p style="text-indent: 24pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt" class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: 宋体; font-size: 12pt">&ldquo;钟摆现象&rdquo;在国际教育史上表现最突出的时期是</span><span style="font-size: 12pt" lang="EN-US"><font face="Times New Roman">20</font></span><span style="font-family: 宋体; font-size: 12pt">世纪。在这个时期里，由于世界政治、经济和科技发生着急剧的变化，使得各国频繁地改变教育政策以使教育系统培养的人才适合时代发展的要求。</span></p>
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<p style="text-indent: 24pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt" class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: 宋体; font-size: 12pt">这里所说的钟摆现象，突出表现为课程开发中，在以社会、学科还是学生为中心之间变化。当社会处于比较安稳的时期，课程开发更倾向于以学生为中心，以杜威的实用主义为指导，强调&ldquo;在做中学&rdquo;、&ldquo;学校及社会&rdquo;，通过具体的生活体验引导学生学习；当国家在科技发展方面感到压力的时候，课程开发则转向以学科为中心，以赫尔巴特和布鲁纳的教育理论为指导，重视&ldquo;间接经验&rdquo;，引导学生探索科学的结构和发现学习的要素，以便建立一个完整的严密的逻辑的知识体系；当国家要大力推广某种政治上的政策，课程开发则可能被迫转到以社会为中心，此时课程会被加入很多政治元素，国家通过课程内容的调整以使得教育能与社会发展及其主流政治思想相适应。</span><span style="font-size: 12pt" lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
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<p style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt" class="MsoNormal"><b><span style="font-family: 宋体; font-size: 12pt">二、课程管理中的&ldquo;钟摆现象&rdquo;</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt" lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
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<p style="text-indent: 24pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt" class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: 宋体; font-size: 12pt">这里所说的课程管理中的&ldquo;钟摆现象&rdquo;主要指课程管理体制的频繁变动。目前，从世界各国的教育发展历程来看，课程管理的行政主体大致可以分为国家、地方和学校三级。&ldquo;课程管理体制改革的实质是课程决策权在三级之间的重新分配，国家课程和校本课程是钟摆的两级，地方课程介于两者之间。纵观课程行政主体的演变史，可以发现课程权力在三级之间来回地摆动，呈现出明显的钟摆现象。&rdquo;</span><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt" lang="EN-US"><span><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12pt" lang="EN-US">[2]</span></span></span></span></span></p>
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<p style="text-indent: 24pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt" class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: 宋体; font-size: 12pt">在古代，课程管理主要以学校自主管理为主，这是由于古代社会政治与经济的封闭型所造成的。</span></p>
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<p style="text-indent: 24pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt" class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: 宋体; font-size: 12pt">到了</span><span style="font-size: 12pt" lang="EN-US"><font face="Times New Roman">19</font></span><span style="font-family: 宋体; font-size: 12pt">世纪后期，政府才开始加强对课程的统一管理，在那段时期，世界各国的课程要么国家政府统一管理，要么地方政府统一管理，学校对于课程的自主管理的绝对权力丧失。在这个时候，课程管理的钟摆现象初见端倪。</span></p>
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<p style="text-indent: 24pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt" class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: 宋体; font-size: 12pt">然而，到了</span><span style="font-size: 12pt" lang="EN-US"><font face="Times New Roman">20</font></span><span style="font-family: 宋体; font-size: 12pt">世纪</span><span style="font-size: 12pt" lang="EN-US"><font face="Times New Roman">60~70</font></span><span style="font-family: 宋体; font-size: 12pt">年代，由于受到西方政治上的民主运动和权力下放运动的影响，学校课程管理的权利有了极大的增强，各国纷纷进行教育改革，但是很多地区是革而不新，其效果甚微，最终导致课程管理体制在政府与学校之间出现强烈的钟摆现象。</span></p>
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<p style="text-indent: 24pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt" class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: 宋体; font-size: 12pt">进入</span><span style="font-size: 12pt" lang="EN-US"><font face="Times New Roman">20</font></span><span style="font-family: 宋体; font-size: 12pt">世纪</span><span style="font-size: 12pt" lang="EN-US"><font face="Times New Roman">80~90</font></span><span style="font-family: 宋体; font-size: 12pt">年代，课程钟摆呈现两种方向相反的运动。原来强调校本课程和地方课程的国家开始强调国家课程，而原来注重国家课程的国家开始采用地方和校本课程。至此，钟摆现象持续下去，而且从世界范围来看还有愈演愈烈的趋势。</span></p>
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<p style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt" class="MsoNormal"><b><span style="font-family: 宋体; font-size: 12pt">三、&ldquo;钟摆现象&rdquo;是教育事业良性发展的必要条件</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt" lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
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<p style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt" class="MsoNormal"><b><span style="font-family: 宋体; font-size: 12pt">（</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt" lang="EN-US"><font face="Times New Roman">1</font></span></b><b><span style="font-family: 宋体; font-size: 12pt">）教育事业良性发展的条件</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt" lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
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<p style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt" class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 12pt" lang="EN-US"><span><font face="Times New Roman">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </font></span></span><span style="font-family: 宋体; font-size: 12pt">教育事业良性发展是指教育系统整体在其内部的各种因素本身及其变化的推动下得到不断完善的过程。教育事业良性发展并非教育系统内部运动的本来状态，相反，它是要在一定的人为的因素的作用下，方能形成并且维持。而这里所说的因素，就是教育事业良性发展的条件。这众多的条件当中，课程改革的钟摆实际上具有极其重要的指导意义以及起到直接调控的作用。这种钟摆现象作为良性发展的条件，能对教育系统内部的诸多方面分别起作用，多管齐下，最终共同促进教育事业的良性发展。</span><span style="font-size: 12pt" lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
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<p style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt" class="MsoNormal"><b><span style="font-family: 宋体; font-size: 12pt">（</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt" lang="EN-US"><font face="Times New Roman">2</font></span></b><b><span style="font-family: 宋体; font-size: 12pt">）&ldquo;钟摆&rdquo;使教育者时刻关注对教育环境变化</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt" lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
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<p style="text-indent: 21.75pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt" class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: 宋体; font-size: 12pt">&ldquo;钟摆&rdquo;与其说是一种教育自发事件，不如说是一种政策导向。这种导向往往不是广大一线教育者主动意识到、提出来和实施之，而是在初始状态处于被动的地位，接受一种新的教育政策，继而需要对这种变化所带来的教育环境上的变化进行重新审视，最后再在日常的教学和管理当中形成自己新的一套教学方案。不仅如此，&ldquo;钟摆&rdquo;还可能创设新的教育工作给一线教育者，例如课程改革当中就要求教师能开发校本课程。在这种情况下，教师只有在不断更新自己已有的教育理念和知识，才能在不断变化的教育系统里面更好地生存和发展。</span></p>
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<p style="text-indent: 21.75pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt" class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: 宋体; font-size: 12pt">因此，每一次大幅度的&ldquo;钟摆&rdquo;动作，对于教育者来说，特别对是一线教师来说，都是一次重大的考验和挑战，使教师们始终保持提高自己的专业水准的激情。</span><span style="font-size: 12pt" lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
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<p style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt" class="MsoNormal"><b><span style="font-family: 宋体; font-size: 12pt">（</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt" lang="EN-US"><font face="Times New Roman">3</font></span></b><b><span style="font-family: 宋体; font-size: 12pt">）&ldquo;钟摆&rdquo;能使受教育者保持持续学习的热情</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt" lang="EN-US"><font face="Times New Roman"><span>&nbsp; </span><o:p></o:p></font></span></b></p>
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<p style="text-indent: 21.75pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt" class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: 宋体; font-size: 12pt">&ldquo;钟摆&rdquo;不仅仅是对教育者持续地提出新的要求，而且对受教育者也有相应的推动作用。</span></p>
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<p style="text-indent: 21.75pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt" class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: 宋体; font-size: 12pt">一方面，正在受教育中的学生，赶上了&ldquo;钟摆&rdquo;时代，在经历一场课程改革的时候，能够非常深刻地意识到时代的进步和社会的发展。这能让更多的学生不满足于当前所学的知识和技能，从而对未知领域的兴趣会极大增强。与此同时，在这过程里学生也感到一定的压力，基础较好的学生担心自己在变革中失去优势，基础较差的学生担心变革后自己变得更差，这些压力能在一定程度上促使学生更努力地学习。</span></p>
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<p style="text-indent: 21.75pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt" class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: 宋体; font-size: 12pt">另一方面，对于已经接受完基础教育的群体，他们离开校园不久，教育界如果此时发起一场变革，或多或少对以前的课程体系做出批判和否定，那么从旧课程体系走过来的学生也就担心自己当时接受的教育存在种种问题，可能会影响到他们的竞争力，使他们担心自己无法与比他们年轻的学生在社会各领域里进行竞争。因此他们迫于压力，也能更有热情地投入到持续学习当中，使自己的知识和技能始终保持与社会需求相一致。</span><span style="font-size: 12pt" lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
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<p style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt" class="MsoNormal"><b><span style="font-family: 宋体; font-size: 12pt">（</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt" lang="EN-US"><font face="Times New Roman">4</font></span></b><b><span style="font-family: 宋体; font-size: 12pt">）&ldquo;钟摆&rdquo;能保证教育输出的多样性</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt" lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
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<p style="text-indent: 21.75pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt" class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: 宋体; font-size: 12pt">按照生态学的理论，任何一个生态系统，无论是自然生态系统还是人类生态系统，系统内部的多样性越明显，那么这个系统良性循环发展的可能性就越大。按此推论，我们整个社会里，人群结构越复杂，特别是知识、技能和能力方面的多样性强，对社会的稳定良性发展越有利。</span></p>
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<p style="text-indent: 21.75pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt" class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: 宋体; font-size: 12pt">在这理论的指导下，整个社会在不同时期通过不同课程体系培养出来的人才，其结构是具备多样性的。虽然从局部来看，当个个体接受的课程依然是以某领域为中心，但是从整个社会的角度来看，不同中心的课程培养出来的人才组合在一起恰好形成一个比较完善的整体。同时，这种多样性还能把有限资源进行分散，避免重复建设，避免人才之间的恶性竞争，力求达到各有所长，各得其所的局面。</span><span style="font-size: 12pt" lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
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<p style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt" class="MsoNormal"><b><span style="font-family: 宋体; font-size: 12pt">（</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt" lang="EN-US"><font face="Times New Roman">5</font></span></b><b><span style="font-family: 宋体; font-size: 12pt">）&ldquo;钟摆&rdquo;能保持和提高社会对教育的重视程度</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt" lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
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<p style="text-indent: 21.75pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt" class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: 宋体; font-size: 12pt">可以说，相对于政治、经济和科技等领域来说，教育在一般情况下，特别是发展中国家来说，并不是社会所最关注的。然而，每一次教育界里的&ldquo;钟摆&rdquo;改方向的时候，社会对教育的重视程度都会普遍提高。这是因为社会各界都会因为教育系统的这种变化而做出调整，因为他们吸收的人才的结构已经或者即将发生重大的变化！</span></p>
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<p style="text-indent: 21.75pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt" class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: 宋体; font-size: 12pt">因此，从教育界本身的角度来说，提高社会关注程度，吸引更多资源投入到教育当中，&ldquo;钟摆&rdquo;是一个有效的手段，这对教育长远发展来说是极其有利的。</span></p>
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<p style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt" class="MsoNormal"><b><span style="font-family: 宋体; font-size: 12pt">四、&ldquo;钟摆现象&rdquo;是教育事业良性发展的表现形式</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt" lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
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<p style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt" class="MsoNormal"><b><span style="font-family: 宋体; font-size: 12pt">（</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt" lang="EN-US"><font face="Times New Roman">1</font></span></b><b><span style="font-family: 宋体; font-size: 12pt">）教育事业良性发展的表现</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt" lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
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<p style="text-indent: 21.75pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt" class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: 宋体; font-size: 12pt">正如笔者前文所述，教育事业良性发展是一个过程，这个过程表现为教育系统整体的不断完善。而每一个现象的过程，都是有一定的表现形式的。表现的主体包括政府、学校、教育者、受教育者以及上述四者交互作用所产生的政策、思想、观念及其相应的具体操作行为。</span></p>
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<p style="text-indent: 21.75pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt" class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: 宋体; font-size: 12pt">课程开发与管理的&ldquo;钟摆现象&rdquo;正是符合上述表现的主体要求，同时又是一个促进教育系统整体不断完善的过程。因此笔者以为，&ldquo;钟摆现象&rdquo;实际上属于教育事业良性发展的一种表现形式。</span><span style="font-size: 12pt" lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
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<p style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt" class="MsoNormal"><b><span style="font-family: 宋体; font-size: 12pt">（</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt" lang="EN-US"><font face="Times New Roman">2</font></span></b><b><span style="font-family: 宋体; font-size: 12pt">）课程开发依据和重心的变化是教育系统使人才结构趋于合理的体现</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt" lang="EN-US"><font face="Times New Roman"><span>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span><o:p></o:p></font></span></b></p>
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<p style="text-indent: 21.75pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt" class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: 宋体; font-size: 12pt">在当代，课程开发的依据和重心总是频繁地变化。这是因为整个社会变化的节奏越来越快了。课程开发的这种变化绝对不是空穴来风，而是事必有因的。其最主要的原因就是社会的人才需求的结构发生了变化。那么，每次课程开发发生变革的时候，实际上就意味着人才结构出现了不合理的情况，需要进行调整。</span></p>
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<p style="text-indent: 21.75pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt" class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: 宋体; font-size: 12pt">当然，对于&ldquo;合理&rdquo;的解释，不同时代不同地区不同的人和组织，有着不同的理解，但具有影响力的理解，则是来源于政府和教育专家，他们一旦认为以往的&ldquo;合理&rdquo;已经不复存在，或者&ldquo;合理&rdquo;的标准发生了变化，他们就会通过改变课程，以使人才结构恢复或者趋向合理。</span></p>
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<p style="text-indent: 21.75pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt" class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: 宋体; font-size: 12pt">我们知道，教育的直接目标就是培养人才，而课程的&ldquo;钟摆&rdquo;是使人才结构趋于合理重要途径和表现，因此我们同样可以把&ldquo;钟摆&rdquo;理解成是教育事业良性发展的表现之一。</span><span style="font-size: 12pt" lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
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<p style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt" class="MsoNormal"><b><span style="font-family: 宋体; font-size: 12pt">（</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt" lang="EN-US"><font face="Times New Roman">3</font></span></b><b><span style="font-family: 宋体; font-size: 12pt">）课程管理体制的权力分配结构的变化是一段时期内教育行政管理效率提高的体现</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt" lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
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<p style="text-indent: 21.75pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt" class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: 宋体; font-size: 12pt">课程管理体制的权力分配往往在国家和地方两者之间来回摇摆。原来状态被新的状态所代替，往往是因为原来的状态不利于教育管理的有效开展。因此，每一次权力的再分配过程，实际上是为了提高管理的效率。当地方权力过大，偏离国家意志的时候，国家实施控制的时候中间环节过多则造成成本增大；而当国家管得太死，地方要实施适合当地当校的个性化的措施的时候，又由于审批环节过多或者硬性规定过严而导致错失许许多多的促进教育发展的机会，那么国家在确认地方有足够能力控制好局面的情况下，把权力下放。</span></p>
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<p style="text-indent: 21.75pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt" class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: 宋体; font-size: 12pt">这种解读也许只看到权力再分配现象的出发点的一个方面，但是其毕竟存在这种因素，因此我们认为，课程管理体制中的&ldquo;钟摆现象&rdquo;反映了教育行政管理对高效率的要求，体现了教育系统内部自我完善自我调整的机制。</span></p>
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<p style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt" class="MsoNormal"><b><span style="font-family: 宋体; font-size: 12pt">五、结论</span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt" lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
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<p style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt" class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 12pt" lang="EN-US"><span><font face="Times New Roman">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </font></span></span><span style="font-family: 宋体; font-size: 12pt">钟摆现象对教育发展的好处并不是钟摆现象的作用的全部，我们知道钟摆现象也能带来许许多多的社会问题，但是我们只有认清了钟摆现象对教育事业良性发展的有利一面的情况下，不断地促进这些有利因素的发展，才能使钟摆现象的作用发挥得更好，从而将其负面影响降到最低。</span><span style="font-size: 12pt" lang="EN-US"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
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<p style="margin: 0cm 0cm 0pt" class="MsoFootnoteText"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9pt" lang="EN-US">[1]</span></span></span></span></span><span lang="EN-US"><font face="Times New Roman"> <span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 9pt" lang="EN-US">[2]</span></span></span></span></span>&nbsp;</font></span><span style="font-family: 宋体">吴刚平</span><span lang="EN-US"><font face="Times New Roman">. </font></span><span style="font-family: 宋体">课程开发中的矛盾运动与钟摆现象探析</span><span lang="EN-US"><font face="Times New Roman">[J]. </font></span><span style="font-family: 宋体">华东师范大学学报</span><span lang="EN-US"><font face="Times New Roman">(</font></span><span style="font-family: 宋体">教育科学版</span><span lang="EN-US"><font face="Times New Roman">). 2000.06(18)</font></span></p>
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